Research Findings: This study investigated the impact of philosophical group discussions, using the Philosophy for Children (P4C) programme, on verbal reasoning skills. The originality of the study is the implementation of P4C with pre-schoolers. Children aged 5 to 6 participated in a quasi-experiment (N = 125), where 58 children were included in an intervention group and 67 children in a control group. The data was collected using a pre- and post-test implemented with individual children. The intervention group participated in a weekly philosophical group discussion over eight months. The results show that children in the intervention group were able to give significantly more reasons that included: (1) comparison, (2) analogy, (3) justification, (4) the wording “because of that”, and (5) causal connection than children in the control group if they were asked to reason their opinion. Practice or Policy: Findings suggest the value of implementing weekly philosophical group discussions based on P4C in pre-schools to promote four basic language skills and academic achievement by fostering verbal reasoning skills.
Aubrey, C., K. Ghenta, & E. Kanira (2012) “Enhancing thinking skills in early childhood”. International Journal of Early Years Education 20, 332–348. doi: 10.1080/09669760.2012.743102
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09669760.2012.743102
Becker, D. R., A. Miao, R. Duncan, & M. M. McClelland (2014) “Behavioral self-regulation and executive function both predict visuomotor skills and early academic achievement”. Early Childhood Research Quarterly Behavioral 29, 411–424. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/ j.ecresq.2014.04.014
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2014.04.014
Biggeri, M., & M. Santi (2012) “The missing dimensions of children’s well-being and well-becoming in education systems: capabilities and philosophy for children”. Journal of Human Development and Capabilities 13, 373–395. doi: 10.1080/19452829.2012.694858
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/19452829.2012.694858
Blum-Kulka, S., & C. Snow, eds. (2002) Talking to adults: the contribution of multiparty discourse to language acquisition. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Cabell, S. Q., L. M. Justiceb, A. S. McGintyc, J. DeCostera, & L. F. Forsto (2015) “Teacher–child conversations in preschool classrooms: Contributions to children’s vocabulary development”. Early Childhood Research Quarterly 30, 80–92.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2014.09.004
Cam, P. (2013) Philosophy for children, values education and the inquiring society. Educational Philosophy and Theory 46, 1203–1211.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00131857.2013.771443
Camhy, D. & G. Iberer (1990) „Philosophie für Kinder“. In D. G. Camhy, ed. Wenn Kinder Philosophieren, 83–108. Graz: Leykam Verlag.
Cohen, L., L. Manion, & K. Morrison (2007) Research methods in education.2nd ed., 51–289. New York, NY: Routledge.
Costa, R. (2014) “The importance and applicability of philosophy for children in today´s society”. Revista Internacional de Filosofía Aplicada 5, 77–106.
Daniel, M. F., M. Gagnon, & J. C. Pettier (2012) “Chapter 7 philosophy for children and the developmental process of dialogical critical thinking in groups of preschool children”. By John A. Sutterby, ed. Early education in a global context. Available online at <http://goo.gl/OdQAtj>. Accessed on 24.08.2016.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/s0270-4021(2012)0000016010
De Rivera, C., L. Girolametto, J. Greenberg, & E. Weitzman (2005) “Children’s responses to educators’ questions in day care play groups”. American journal of Speech-Language Pathology 14, 14–26.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1044/1058-0360(2005/004)
Fisher, R. (2007) “Dialogic teaching: developing thinking and meta-cognition through philosophical discussion”. Early Child Development and Care 177, 615–631.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03004430701378985
Fisher, R. (2001) “Philosophy in primary schools: fostering thinking skills and literacy”. READING Literacy and Language, 67–73.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1467-9345.00164
Gillies, R. M. & A. Khan (2009) “Promoting reasoned argumentation, problem-solving and learning during small-group work”. Cambridge Journal of Education 39, 7–27.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03057640802701945
Goh, S. S., L. A. Yamauchi, & K. T. Ratliffe (2012) “Educators’ perspectives on instructional conversations in preschool settings”. Early Childhood Education Journal 40, 305–314. doi: 10.1007/s10643-012-0518-9
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10643-012-0518-9
Göd, S. (1995) Philosophieren mit Kindern in der Grundschule (Unpublished master`s thesis) Vienna University Library, Vienna, Austria.
Harris, D., & J. Williams (2012) “The association of classroom interactions, year group and social class”. British Educational Research Journal 38, 373–397. doi: 10.1080/01411926.2010.548547
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01411926.2010.548547
Haynes, J. & K. Murris, (2011) “The provocation of an epistemological shift in teacher education through philosophy with children”. Journal of Philosophy of Education 45, 285–303.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9752.2011.00799.x
Jacoby, J. W. & N. K. Lesaux (2014) “Support for extended discourse in teacher talk with linguistically diverse pre-schoolers”. Early Education and Development 25, 1162–1179. doi: 10.1080/10409289.2014.907695
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10409289.2014.907695
Junefelt, K. & T. Tulviste (1997) “Regulation and praise in American, Estonian, and Swedish mother-child interaction”. Mind, culture, and activity 4, 24–33.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1207/s15327884mca0401_3
Kikas, E. (2008) “Tunnetusprotsesside areng”. [Development of the cognitive processes.] In E. Kikas, ed. Õppimine ja õpetamine koolieelses eas, 19–37. [Learning and teaching in pre-school age.] Tartu, Estonia: Tartu University Press.
Koerber, S., B. Sodian, C. Thoermer, & U. Nett (2005) “Scientific reasoning in young children: Preschoolers’ ability to evaluate covariation evidence”. Swiss Journal of Psychology 64, 141–152. doi: 10.1024/1421-0185.64.3.141
http://dx.doi.org/10.1024/1421-0185.64.3.141
Koolieelse lasteasutuse riiklik õppekava (2008) [Estonian National Curriculum.]
Lee, Y. & M. B. Kinzie (2011) “Teacher question and student response with regard to cognition and language use”. Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 40, 857–874. doi: 10.1007/s11251-011-9193-2
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11251-011-9193-2
Lee, Y., M. B. Kinzie, & J. V. Whittaker (2012) “Impact of online support for teachers’ open-ended questioning in pre-k science activities”. Teaching and Teacher Education 28, 568–577. doi:10.1016/j.tate.2012.01.002
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2012.01.002
Limpan, M. (1973) Philosophy for children. Institute for the Advancement of Philosophy for Children, Montclair State College, Upper Montclair, New Jersey.
Lipman, M. & A. M. Sharp (1974) Teaching children philosophical thinking: an introduction to the teacher’s manual for Harry Stottlemeier’s discovery. Institute for the Advancement of Philosophy for Children, Montclair State College, Upper Montclair, New Jersey.
Lipman, M. (1975) Grade school philosophy: how come and where to? Institute for the Advancement of Philosophy for Children, Montclair State College, Upper Montclair, New Jersey.
Lipman, M. (1977) Philosophy in the classroom, 1–106. Institute for the Advancement of Philosophy for Children, Montclair State College, Upper Montclair, New Jersey.
Lipman, M. (1984) “The cultivation of reasoning through philosophy”. Educational leadership
51–56.
Lohman, H., & M. Tomasello (2003) “The role of language in the development of false belief understanding: a training study”. Child Development 74, 1130–1144.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1467-8624.00597
Matsak, E. (2010) Discovering logical constructs from Estonian children language (Doctoral dissertation) Available online at<http://digi.lib.ttu.ee/i/?465>. Accessed on 24.08.2016.
Meacham, S., C. Vukelich, M. Han, & M. Buell (2014) “Preschool teachers’ questioning in sociodramatic play”. Early Childhood Research Quarterly 29, 562–573.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2014.07.001
Murris, K. S. (2008) “Philosophy with children, the stingray and the educative value of disequilibrium”. Journal of Philosophy of Education 42, 667–685.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9752.2008.00640.x
Murris, K. (2014) “Reading philosophically in a community of enquiry: challenging developmentality with Oram and Kitamura’s Angry Arthur”. Children’s Literature in Education 45, 145–165. doi: 10.1007/s10583-013-9205-8
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10583-013-9205-8
Myers, P. A. (2005) The princess Storyteller, Clara Clarifier, Quincy Questioner, and the Wizard: reciprocal teaching adapted for kindergarten students. International Reading Association, 314–324. doi:10.1598/RT.59.4.2
http://dx.doi.org/10.1598/RT.59.4.2
Nobes, G., A. E. Martin, & G. Panagiotaki (2005) “The development of scientific knowledge of the Earth”. British Journal of Developmental Psychology 23, 47–64. doi: 10.1348/026151004x20649
http://dx.doi.org/10.1348/026151004x20649
Ornaghi, V., J. Brockmeier, & I. G. Gavazzi (2011) “The role of language games in children’s understanding of mental states: a training study”. Journal of cognition and development 12, 239–259.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15248372.2011.563487
Philosophie – eine Schule der Freiheit. Philosophieren mit Kindern weltweit und in Deutschland (2008) Bonn: Deutsche UNESCO-Kommission.
Piaget, J. & B. Inhelder (1975) The origin of the idea of chance in children. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, Inc.
Pihlgren, A. S. (2008) Socrates in the classroom: rationales and effects of philosophizing with children. Stockholm: Elanders Sverige.
Poelchau, H. W. (2007) “Praktische Philosophie – Herkunft und Zukunft”. In K. Draken, series ed. Philosophieunterrich in Nordhein-Westfahlen. Vol. 1: 10 Jahre “Praktische Philosophie” in Nordrhein-Westfalen, 18–31. Available online at <http://www.fv-philosophie-nrw.de/ Mitteilungen%20Nr%2043.pdf>. Accessed on 24.08.2016.
Reznitskaya, A. (2012) “Rethinking language use during literature discussions”. The Reading Teacher 65, 446–456. doi:10.1002/TRTR.01066
http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/TRTR.01066
Richland, L. E. & M. R. Burchinal (2013) “Early executive function predicts reasoning development”. Psychological Science 24, 87–92.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0956797612450883
Ridley, K. (2006) “Thinking skills in the early years: a literature review”. Practical research for education 36, 13–18.
Sperber, D. & H. Mercier (2010) “Reasoning as a social competence”. In J. Elster & H. Landemore, eds. Collective Wisdom. MIT Press.
Säre, E. (2010) “Wie das Philosophieren in den Kindergarten kommt”. In. A. A. Bucher, G. Büttner, P. Freudenberger-Lötz, & M. Schreiner, eds. In der Mitte ist ein Kreuz. Kindertheologische Zugänge im Elementarbereich (Jahrbuch für Kindertheologie. Band 9, 255–259. Stuttgart: Calwer Verlag.
Säre, E., P. Luik, & R. Fisher (2016) “Supporting educational researchers and practitioners in their work in education: assessing the verbal reasoning skills of 5- to 6-year-old children”. European Early Childhood Education Research Journal 24, 5, 638–651. DOI: 10.1080/1350293X.2016.1213564
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/1350293X.2016.1213564
Taggart, G., K.Ridley, P. Rudd, & P. Benefield,(2005) Thinking skills in the early years: a literature review. The Mere, Upton Park.
Topping, K. J. & S. Trickey. (2007) “Collaborative philosophical enquiry for school children: cognitive effects at 10-12 years”. British Journal of Educational Psychology 77, 271–288. doi: 10.1348/000709906X105328
http://dx.doi.org/10.1348/000709906X105328
Topping, K. J. & S.Trickey (2014) “The role of dialog in philosophy for children”. International Journal of Educational Research 63, 69–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijer.2013.01.002
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijer.2013.01.002
Toyama, N. & T. College (2011) “Japanese children’s and adults’ reasoning about the consequences of psychogenic bodily reactions”. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly 57, 129–157.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1353/mpq.2011.0008
Trickey, S. & K. J. Topping (2004) “Philosophy for children: a systematic review”. Research Papers in Education 19, 365–380.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/0267152042000248016
Vygotsky, L. S. (1975) Thought and language. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The M. I. T. Press.
Vygotsky, L. S. (1978) “Interaction between learning and development. From: Mind and society”. Cambridge. Harvard University Press. Reprinted in: Readings on the development of Children. Gauvain, M. & Cole, M., eds. New York: W. H. Freeman and Company.
Vygotsky, L. (1934/2014) Mõtlemine ja kõne. Psühholoogilised uurimused. [Thinking and speech. Psychological studies.] (Original work published 1934) Tartu: Ilmamaa.
Walsh, B. & P. Blewitt (2006) “The effect of questioning style during storybook reading on novel vocabulary acquisition of pre-schoolers”. Early Childhood Education Journal 33, 273–278. doi: 10.1007/s10643-005-0052-0
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10643-005-0052-0
Walsh, J. A. & B. D. Sattes (2005) Quality questioning: research-based practice to engage every learner. California: Corwin Press.
White, J. (2012) “Philosophy in primary schools?”. Journal of Philosophy of Education 46, 449–460.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9752.2012.00860.x
Zeitler, K. (2010) Siehst du die Welt auch so wie ich? Philosophieren in der Kita. Wien: Verlag Herder.
Zoller, E. (2008) Väikesed filosoofid. [Small philosophers.] Tallinn: Ilo Kirjastus.
Zucker, T. A., L. M. Justice, S. B. Piasta, & J. N. Kaderavek (2010) “Preschool teachers’ literal and inferential questions and children’s responses during whole-class shared reading”. Early Childhood Research Quarterly 25, 65–83. doi:10.1016/j.ecresq.2009.07.001http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2009.07.001
