Low-temperature pyrolysis of Turkish Göynük oil shale (GOS) and terebinth berries as individual objects and their dry and hydrous co-pyrolysis in a closed system, in an autoclave was studied. The effect of pyrolysis conditions (temperature and duration) on the yield of extracts (hexane and benzene), gas and organic residue was investigated.
The composition of extracts was determined via thin layer chromatography. The yield of the extracts increased with the increase of pyrolysis temperature and duration, and its maximum attained 48.5% from the initial organic matter for GOS and 40% for berries. On the other hand, supercritical water also affected product yields and composition of extracts derived from both GOS and terebinth berries. The total yields of extracts from hydrous pyrolysis were 57.3% and 60.0% for GOS and berries, respectively. However, the extracts of hydrous pyrolysis contained more polar heterocompounds and less nonaromatic hydrocarbons than those of dry pyrolysis.
Addition of berries to GOS lowered the co-pyrolysis temperature about 10 °C for reaching the maximum yield of the total extract. Dry co-pyrolysis of GOS with berries resulted in additive rather than in synergistic effect in the total extract yield, but the composition of the extract as a fuel – more nonaromatic hydrocarbons (33.8%) and less heterocompounds (43.0%) than that of extracts from individual feedstocks – was improved. Similarly, in the case of hydrous co-pyrolysis, the yields of extracts (hexane and benzene), gas and organic residue consisted of partial contributions of the yields from the initial feedstocks.
1. Vanderbroucke, M., Largeau C. Kerogen origin, evolution and structure // Org. Geochem. 2007. Vol. 38, No. 5. P. 79–833.
2. Johannes, I., Zaidentsal, A. Kinetics of low-temperature retorting of Kukersite // Oil Shale. 2008. Vol. 25, No. 4. P. 412-425.
3. Johannes, I., Tiikma, L. Thermobituminization of Baltic oil shale // Advances in Energy Research. Vol. 2. Chapter 9. / Morena J. Acosta (Ed.). – Nova Science Publishers, Inc. ISBN: 978-1-61728-996-5. 2011. P. 267–282.
4. Johannes, I., Tiikma, L. Kinetics of oil shale pyrolysis in an autoclave under non-linear increase of temperature // Oil Shale. 2004. Vol. 21, No. 4. P. 273–288.
5. Sokolova, J., Tiikma, L., Bityukov, M., Johannes, I. Ageing of kukersite thermobitumen // Oil Shale. 2011. Vol. 28, No. 1. P. 4–18.
6. Kok, M. V. Geological considerations for the economic evaluation of Turkish oil shale deposits and their combustion-pyrolysis behavior // Energ. Source, Part A. 2009. Vol. 32, No. 4. P. 323–335.
7. Putun, E., Akar, A., Ekinci, E., Bartle, K-D. Chemistry and geochemistry of Turkish oil shale kerogens // Fuel. 1988. Vol. 67, No. 8. P. 1106–1110.
8. Ballice, L., Yüksel, M., Sağlam, M., Schulz, H. Evolution of volatile products from Göynük (Turkey) oil shales by temperature-programmed pyrolysis // Fuel. 1997. Vol. 76, No. 5. P. 375–380.
9. Kök, M. V., Pokol, G., Keskin, C., Madarász, J., Bagci, S. Combustion characteristics of lignite and oil shale samples by thermal analysis techniques // J. Therm. Anal. Calorim. 2004. Vol. 76, No. 1. P. 247–254.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/B:JTAN.0000027823.17643.5b
10. Kök M. V. Thermal investigation of Seyitomer oil shale // Thermochim. Acta. 2001. Vol. 369, No. 1–2. P. 149–155.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0040-6031(00)00764-4
11. Kök, M. V. Heating rate effect on the DSC kinetics of oil shales // J. Therm. Analys. Calorim. 2007. Vol. 90, No. 3. P. 817–821.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10973-007-8240-3
12. Kök, M. V., Pamir, R. Pyrolysis kinetics of oil shales determined by DSC and TG/DTG // Oil Shale. 2003. Vol. 20, No. 1. P. 57–68.
13. Karabakan, A., Yürüm, Y. Effect of the mineral matrix in the reactions of oil shales: 1. Pyrolysis reactions of Turkish Göynük and US Green River oil shales // Fuel. 1998. Vol. 77, No.12. P. 1303–1309.
14. Sert, M., Ballice, L., Yüksel, M., Sağlam, M. Effect of mineral matter on product yield and composition at isothermal pyrolysis of Turkish oil shales // Oil Shale. 2009. Vol. 26, No. 4. P. 463–474.
15. Ballice, L. Stepwise chemical demineralization of Göynük (Turkey) oil shale and pyrolysis of demineralization products // Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 2006. Vol. 45, No. 3. P. 906–912.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/ie050751f
16. Yanik, J., Yüksel, M., Sağlam, M., Olukçu, N., Bartle, K., Frere, B. Characterization of the oil fractions of shale oil obtained by pyrolysis and supercritical water extraction // Fuel. 1995. Vol. 74, No. 1. P. 46–50.
17. Luik, H., Palu, V., Bityukov, M., Luik, L., Kruusement, K., Tamvelius, H., Pryadka, N. Liquefaction of Estonian kukersite oil shale kerogen with selected superheated solvents in static conditions // Oil Shale. 2005. Vol. 22, No. 1. P. 25–36.
18. Tiikma, L., Johannes, I., Luik, H., Zaidentsal, A., Vink, N. Thermal dissolution of Estonian oil shale // J. Anal. Appl. Pyrol. 2009. Vol. 85, No. 1–2. P. 502–507.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jaap.2008.09.009
19. Gersten, J., Fainberg, V., Hetsroni, G., Shindler, Y. Kinetic study of the thermal decomposition of polypropylene, oil shale, and their mixture // Fuel. 2000. Vol. 79, No. 13. P. 1679–1686.
20. Tiikma, L., Luik, H., Pryadka, N. Co-pyrolysis of Estonian shales with low density polyethylene // Oil Shale. 2004. Vol. 21, No. 1. P. 75–85.
21. Bozoglu, C., Karayildirim, T., Yanik, J. Utilization of products obtained from copyrolysis of oil shale and plastic // Oil Shale. 2009. Vol. 26, No. 4. P. 475–490.
22. Aboulkas, A., El harfi, K., Nadifiyine, M., El bouadili, A. Investigation on pyrolysis of Moroccan oil shale/plastic mixtures by thermogravimetric analysis // Fuel Process. Technol. 2008. Vol. 89, No. 1. P. 1000–1006.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fuproc.2008.03.011
23. Luik, H., Luik, L., Tiikma, L., Vink, N. Parallels between slow pyrolysis of Estonian oil shale and forest biomass residues // J. Anal. Appl. Pyrol. 2007. Vol. 79, No. 1–2. P. 205–209.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jaap.2006.12.003
24. Matsumura, Y., Nonaka, H., Yokura, H., Tsutsumi, A., Yoshid, K. Co-liquefaction of coal and cellulose in supercritical water // Fuel. 1999. Vol. 78, No. 9. P. 1049–1056.
25. Veski, R., Palu, V., Kruusement, K. Co-liquefaction of kukersite oil shale and pine wood in supercritical water // Oil Shale. 2006. Vol. 23, No. 3. P. 236–248.
26. Luik, H., Palu, V., Luik, L., Kruusement, K., Tamvelius, H., Veski, R., Vetkov, N., Vink, N., Bitjukov, M. Trends in biomass thermochemical liquefaction: global experience and recent studies in Estonia // Proc. Estonian Acad. Sci. Chem. 2005. Vol. 54, No. 4. P. 194–229.
27. Luik, L., Luik, H., Palu, V., Kruusement, K., Tamvelius, H. Conversion of the Estonian fossil and renewable feedstocks in the medium of supercritical water // J. Anal. Appl. Pyrolys. 2009. Vol. 85, No. 1–2. P. 492–496.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jaap.2008.09.012
28. Özcan, M. Characteristics of fruit and oil of terebinth (Pistacia terebinthus L) growing wild in Turkey // J. Sci. Food Agric. 2004. Vol. 84, No. 6. P. 517–520.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jsfa.1632
29. Kumar, S., Gupta, R. B. Biocrude production from switchgrass using subcritical water // Energ. Fuel. 2009. Vol. 23, No. 10. P. 5151–5159.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/ef900379p
30. Minowa, T., Zhen, F., Ogi, T., Varhegyi, G. Decomposition of cellulose and glucose in hot-compressed water under catalyst-free conditions // J. Chem. Eng. Jpn. 1998. Vol. 31, No. 1. P. 131–134.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1252/jcej.31.131
31. Yuan, X. Z., Tong, J. Y., Zeng, G. M., Li, H., Xie, W. Comparative studies of products obtained at different temperatures during straw liquefaction by hot compressed water // Energ. Fuel. 2009. Vol. 23, No. 6. P. 3262–3267.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/ef900027d
32. Duman, G., Okutucu, C., Ucar, S., Stahl, R., Yanik, J. The slow and fast pyrolysis of cherry seeds // Bioresource Technol. 2011. Vol. 102, No. 2. P. 1869–1878.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2010.07.051
33. Karagöz, S., Bhaskar, T., Muto, A., Sakata, Y. Catalytic hydrothermal treatment of pine wood biomass: effect of RbOH and CsOH on product distribution // J. Chem. Technol. Biot. 2005. Vol. 80, No. 10. P. 1097–1102.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jctb.1287
